L4+Fecteau+Cameron

**COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, HEALTH AND REHABILITATION **  **LESSON PLAN FORMAT **       Maine Learning Results: Science and Technology - D. The Physical Setting D2. Earth Grade 6-8 Geology Students describe the various cycles, physical and biological forces and processes, position in space, energy transformations, and human actions that affect the short-term and long-term changes to the Earth. f. Give examples of abrupt changes and slow changes in Earth Systems.      Students will be quizzed by their peers, pertaining to the material that they just learned. Students will also complete a blog when their group meets to see that fairness is being practiced. The graphic organizer will also be collected and looked at to observe the students' understanding. Class discussions will also help determine whether or not students have a good grip on the material. At the end of the class I will have the students bow their heads and close their eyes. They will then give me a thumbs up, a thumbs down, or anywhere in between suggesting their understanding. A confidential photograph will be taken for a visual artifact to see my students' progress. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Digital Comic Life posters- Students will be able to make sense of the processes of the Earth's systems by making posters and then producing a Comic Life visual that is digital. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> As the teacher, I will not be using technology in the hook. I will be logging onto the students' blogs to see how the group interactions went and be able to comment on them. I will also being using a camera to take the pictures of students' posters for their Comic Life product. The students will be using two types of technology as well. They will work with Comic Life for their poster product and the blogging for their group learning reflections.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">UNIVERSITY OF MAINE AT FARMINGTON **
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Teacher’s Name __****<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Mr. Fecteau** __Date of Lesson__:** 4
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Grade Level __****<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">6 - 8** __Topic__:** Make Sense; Geology/Earth
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Objectives __**<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Student will understand that **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> the Water, Nitrogen, and Carbon Cycles can be slightly altered by the effects of plate movement.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Student will know **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">precipitation, condensation, evaporation, photosynthesis, decomposers, Nitrates, Nitrites, Ammonium, and respiration. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Student will be able to **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">make sense of the processes of the Earth's systems by making posters and then producing a Comic Life visual that is digital. Product: Digital Comic Life posters. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Maine Learning Results Alignment __**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Rationale: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">This lesson will be completed by the students through Jigsaw in the cooperative learning and will be using the step-by-step chart and poster of the cycles to produce the final product. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Assessment __**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Formative (Assessment for Learning) **
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Summative (Assessment of Learning) **
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Integration __**<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * Technology: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">

Theater: At the beginning of this lesson, students are required to put on and act out the various stages of each cycle in the correct order. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Jigsaw: As students enter the classroom, they will draw a letter from my top-hat. The letter N will stand for the Nitrogen Cycle, the letter C will stand for the Carbon Cycle, and the letter W will stand for the Water Cycle. This letter will have a number on it that will determine the groups of three in the cooperative learning. The letter determines which cycle the student will have to act out with his or her peers. Students will be broken up into groups of three, where each is assigned a particular cycle; Nitrogen, Water, and Carbon. Students then individually research the cycle until it is time to meet with other students of the same cycle. After they have gone over the material and mastered the cycle, they will return to their original groups of three and teach the others. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> //** I will review student’s IEP, 504 or ELLIDEP and make appropriate modifications and accommodations. **//**<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * Subject:**
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Groupings __**<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Differentiated Instruction __**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Strategies **
 * Verbal: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Once the student has mastered their cycle, they are required to relay the knowledge to the two other members of his or her group.
 * Logical:** The graphic organizer, Step-by-step chart and rough draft of posters.
 * Visual:** The graphic organizer, the cardboard cut-outs during the hook, and rough drafts of posters.
 * Bodily-Kinesthetic**: Students will be acting out the cycles with cardboard cut-outs and will need to put the processes in order.
 * Musical**: Upload a song to the wiki that might relate to the cycles, like weather.
 * Interpersonal**: In the cooperative learning group students are able to brainstorm on their own about the specified cycle.
 * Intrapersonal**: Students are interacting with each other in the groups of three and of the same cycle.
 * Naturalist**: Students are thinking of these natural cycles that they experience day in, and day out. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Modifications/Accommodations **

<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The extension students will be asked to research and see what they can find as far as, what other cycles does the Earth have? Students will report their findings into a blog entry and reflect on their findings. What did they find? Is there something interesting about this particular cycle(s)? Does this particular cycle directly impact us? How? These are just some of the various questions to be answered. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Pencil/Pen Comic Life software Poster paper Colored pencils Laptop Camera Ruler Cardboard Paint String Chairs Graphic organizer Blog account <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Earth's Systems [] [] [] [] [] <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">As students are undergoing the lesson, particular students that need the experience and set instructions in order to succeed will find this lesson to be quite helpful. During the hook they experience how the systems work and also get to have the instructions right in front of them. Lesson four is also a necessity for those students who thrive to research specific topics and need to know the in and out of something. This could pertain to the cycles as to "why they work the way they do?" Students that particularly feed off others' energy will engage easily during lesson four. These students will experience pairing up with another student and also enjoy the class discussion. Students that are energetic and need movement and lots of variety, then the hook is where it is at. The students actually act out the Earth's systems, so that they are moving and learning as they go. Also, they are able to think for themselves before pairing up with others, and then sharing with the class as a whole. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> The facet that this lesson is using is Perspective. Students will be able to make sense of the processes of the Earth's systems by making posters and then producing a Comic Life visual that is digital. The students' final product will be a digital Comic Life that uses photographs of their posters. This lesson will be completed by the students through jigsaw in the cooperative learning and will be quizzed on their knowledge of the content leading up to the product by their peers. For contents notes, please see below Teaching and Learning Sequence section. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * Absent Students:** **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> If a student misses a class, then they are expected to get the class notes from his or hers peers. If a particular assignment was due the day of their returning, then they are also expected to have it completed the following day for me. If a student is incapable of doing the assigned work, then a note from a doctor or parent will be taken into consideration for an extended due date. If no note is given, then the student will receive a zero for the assignment. If the student also fails to turn in the homework assignment even with the extended due date, then the consequences are the same as the regular. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Extensions **
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Materials, Resources and Technology __**
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Source for Lesson Plan and Research __**
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Maine Standards for Initial Teacher Certification and Rationale __**
 * //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Standard 3 - Demonstrates a knowledge of the diverse ways in which students learn and develop by providing learning opportunities that support their intellectual, physical, emotional, social, and cultural development. //**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Rationale **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">:
 * //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">• Standard 4 - Plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, curriculum goals, and learning and development theory. //**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Rationale **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">:
 * //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">• Standard 5 - Understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies and appropriate technology to meet students’ needs. //**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Rationale **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">:
 * Verbal: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Once the student has mastered their cycle, they are required to relay the knowledge to the two other members of his or her group.
 * Logical:** The graphic organizer, Step-by-step chart and rough draft of posters.
 * Visual:** The graphic organizer, the cardboard cut-outs during the hook, and rough drafts of posters.
 * Bodily-Kinesthetic**: Students will be acting out the cycles with cardboard cut-outs and will need to put the processes in order.
 * Musical**: Upload a song to the wiki that might relate to the cycles, like weather.
 * Interpersonal**: In the cooperative learning group students are able to brainstorm on their own about the specified cycle.
 * Intrapersonal**: Students are interacting with each other in the groups of three and of the same cycle.
 * Naturalist**: Students are thinking of these natural cycles that they experience day in, and day out.

Type II technology will be used by students through blogging after every class for reflection and the Comic Life for the product. In addition, students are also blogging about their group efforts and accomplishments. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Students will be quizzed by their peers, pertaining to the material that they just learned. Students will also complete a blog entry every time the group formally and informally meets to see that fairness is being practiced. The Comic Life slide show will be the students' final product. Students are using their graphic organizers, poster rough drafts, final posters, and photographing their poster to integrate in the final product. <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">__Day 1__ ** <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Students enter the class and pull letter from my hat. I will stand before the class with my hand raised for silence. Hook; Act out the different Earth cycles with cardboard cut-outs. Time: 10 minutes Go over instructions on the whiteboard. Time: 5 minutes Students will then get into groups of three. Time: 5 minutes Students will individually research their assigned cycle. Time: 20 minutes Students meet with their peers that have the same cycle. Time: 15 minutes Return to original group of three to teach them the cycle. Time: 40 minutes Teacher collects graphic organizers Start posters with partners. Time: 10 minutes Blog. Time: 10 minutes. Thumbs up and photograph understanding. Time: 5 minutes
 * //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">• Standard 8 - Understands and uses a variety of formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and support the development of the learner. //**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Rationale **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">:
 * __<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Teaching and Learning Sequence __****<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">

HW: Poster(s) (Each student in the group of three gets one)

__ ** Day 2 ** __ Finish posters with group. Time: 45 minutes Start Comic Life. Time: 60 minutes Blog. Time: 10 minutes Thumbs up and photograph understanding. Time: 5 minutes

HW: Finish Comic Life

For the fourth lesson students' working surfaces will be arranged in a clusters formation. This arrangement will be handy for when the groups of three break off and go to students that have the same cycle as them. As students enter the classroom they will draw a letter from the mysterious hat. The letter N will stand for the Nitrogen Cycle, the letter C will stand for the Carbon Cycle, and the letter W will stand for the Water Cycle. This letter will have a number on it that will determine the groups of three in the cooperative learning. At this point the kids would experience the hook by acting out the different Earth cycles with cardboard cut-outs. The students with the same letter would act out that cycle. From there, students will go into the cooperative learning aspect of jigsaw. They will use a graphic organizer to write down their ideas and research. The students will be given individual time to research their cycle, meet their peers of the same cycle, and return to teach and quiz their group on the particular cycle. Students will hand in their graphic organizers for positive feedback the following class. The students will then begin their posters of their own cycle. This will be assigned for homework. At the end of each class they will blog to give me additional feedback. Students will understand that the Water, Nitrogen, and Carbon Cycles can be slightly altered by the effects of plate movement. Students will learn that there are many different contributors other than being provided by humans, like natural events, that add to the chemical levels. Students describe the various cycles, physical and biological forces and processes, position in space, energy transformations, and human actions that affect the short-term and long-term changes to the Earth. For the hook students will act out the different Earth cycles with cardboard cut-outs. __ ** What, Where, Why, Hook, Tailor: Visual, Verbal, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Logical, Naturalist **

__ Students will know precipitation, condensation, evaporation, photosynthesis, decomposers, Nitrates, Nitrites, Ammonium, and respiration. The instructions for the lesson will be clearly outlined in large bold print on the board so that all students can see the direction in which they need to go. I will go over the outlined instructions verbally for those who do have trouble. Students will be continuously monitored by me as I will be going from group to group and also hovering for a raised hand after. I will check for students' understanding of the topic by collecting their graphic organizers and providing encouraging feedback. At the end of the class I will have the students bow their heads and close their eyes. They will then give me a thumbs up, a thumbs down, or anywhere in between suggesting their understanding. A confidential photograph will be taken for a visual artifact to see my students' progress. Students’ posters will also be checked for understanding. For contents notes, please see below Teaching and Learning Sequence section. __ ** Equip, Tailor: Logical, Visual, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Verbal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Interpersonal **

__ For the graphic organizer students will be using the Step-By-Step chart. Jigsaw: Students will be broken up into groups of three, where each is assigned a particular cycle; Nitrogen, Water, and Carbon. As students enter the classroom, they will draw a letter from my top-hat. The letter N will stand for the Nitrogen Cycle, the letter C will stand for the Carbon Cycle, and the letter W will stand for the Water Cycle. This letter will have a number on it that will determine the groups of three in the cooperative learning. The letter determines which cycle the student will have to act out with his or her peers. So for example a student draws the letter C, the Carbon cycle, and the number three is on the letter. For the hook they will act out the Carbon cycle with others and for their research part they will research that cycle. The number three is the number that will match two other peers in the class. This will be their group. Students will be broken up into groups of three, where each is assigned a particular cycle; Nitrogen, Water, and Carbon. Students then individually research the cycle until it is time to meet with other students of the same cycle. Before returning to original groups of three, students' graphic organizers will be looked over by the teacher and given feedback. After handing back their graphic organizers, students will make a rough draft of their poster onto a regular piece of paper that will be reviewed and critiqued by students. Students will then check their final product with a given rubric. After they have gone over the material and mastered the cycle, they will return to their original groups of three and teach the others. ** __Explore, Experience, Rethink, Revise, Refine, Tailor: Verbal, Logical, Visual, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Bodily-Kinesthetic__ **

Students will be quizzed by their peers, pertaining to the material that they just learned. Students will also complete a blog entry every time the group meets to see that fairness is being practiced. Students will hand in any type of quiz information given from peers and their graphic organizers. These will be looked at and given positive feedback for the next class. The students are then able to use this information to start a rough draft of their posters. The rough drafts will be edited and given feedback by each member of the group so that each member has seen it. When the students complete their products, they will be graded and returned the following week, if not sooner. For homework, students will be asked to start the scripts and posters and come to the next class with something to work with. The group will not have to decide which person does what part because the letter they got determines that. This lesson will be the foundation of further knowledge for students to know before going more in depth with the Earth's systems and how they can be affected. __ ** Evaluate, Tailor: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Visual, Logical, Verbal, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalist **
 * Content Notes**__


 * NITROGEN CYCLE**

The **[|nitrogen cycle]** represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial ecosystems (**Figure 9s-1**). Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex **[|organic]** molecules like **[|amino acids]**, **[|proteins]**, and [|**nucleic acids**]. The store of nitrogen found in the atmosphere, where it exists as a gas (mainly N2), plays an important role for life. This store is about one million times larger than the total nitrogen contained in living organisms. Other major stores of nitrogen include organic matter in soil and the oceans. Despite its abundance in the atmosphere, nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient for plant growth. This problem occurs because most plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: **[|ammonium]** ion (NH4+ ) and the ion **[|nitrate]** (NO3- ). Most plants obtain the nitrogen they need as **[|inorganic]** nitrate from the **[|soil solution]**. Ammonium is used less by plants for uptake because in large concentrations it is extremely toxic. Animals receive the required nitrogen they need for **[|metabolism]**, growth, and reproduction by the consumption of living or dead organic matter containing molecules composed partially of nitrogen.


 * Figure 9s-1:** Nitrogen cycle.

In most ecosystems nitrogen is primarily stored in living and dead **[|organic matter]**. This organic nitrogen is converted into inorganic forms when it re-enters the **[|biogeochemical cycle]** via **[|decomposition]**. **[|Decomposers]**, found in the upper soil layer, chemically modify the nitrogen found in **[|organic matter]** from **[|ammonia]** (NH3 ) to **[|ammonium]** salts (NH4+ ). This process is known as **[|mineralization]** and it is carried out by a variety of **[|bacteria]**, **[|actinomycetes]**, and **[|fungi]**. Nitrogen in the form of **[|ammonium]** can be absorbed onto the surfaces of clay particles in the soil. The ion of ammonium has a positive molecular charge is normally held by **[|soil colloids]**. This process is sometimes called **//micelle fixation//** (see **Figure 9s-1**). Ammonium is released from the colloids by way of **[|cation exchange]**. When released, most of the ammonium is often chemically altered by a specific type of **[|autotrophic]** **[|bacteria]** (bacteria that belong to the genus **__Nitrosomonas__**) into **[|nitrite]** (NO2- ). Further modification by another type of bacteria (belonging to the genus **__Nitrobacter__**) converts the **[|nitrite]** to **[|nitrate]** (NO3- ). Both of these processes involve chemical **[|oxidation]** and are known as **[|nitrification]**. However, nitrate is very soluble and it is easily lost from the soil system by **[|leaching]**. Some of this leached nitrate flows through the **[|hydrologic system]** until it reaches the oceans where it can be returned to the atmosphere by **[|denitrification]**. Denitrification is also common in **[|anaerobic]** soils and is carried out by **[|heterotrophic]** **[|bacteria]**. The process of denitrification involves the metabolic **[|reduction]** of nitrate (NO3- ) into nitrogen (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) gas. Both of these gases then **[|diffuse]** into the atmosphere. Almost all of the nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere. Significant amounts enter the soil in rainfall or through the effects of lightning. The majority, however, is biochemically **[|fixed]** within the soil by specialized micro-organisms like **[|bacteria]**, **[|actinomycetes]**, and **[|cyanobacteria]**. Members of the bean family (legumes) and some other kinds of plants form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria. In exchange for some nitrogen, the bacteria receive from the plants carbohydrates and special structures (nodules) in roots where they can exist in a moist environment. Scientists estimate that biological fixation globally adds approximately 140 million metric tons of nitrogen to ecosystems every year. The activities of humans have severely altered the nitrogen cycle. Some of the major processes involved in this alteration include:

<span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops has caused increased rates of denitrification and leaching of nitrate into **[|groundwater]**. The additional nitrogen entering the groundwater system eventually flows into streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries. In these systems, the added nitrogen can lead to **[|eutrophication]**. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Increased deposition of nitrogen from atmospheric sources because of fossil fuel combustion and forest burning. Both of these processes release a variety of solid forms of nitrogen through combustion. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Livestock ranching. Livestock release a large amounts of ammonia into the environment from their wastes. This nitrogen enters the soil system and then the hydrologic system through leaching, groundwater flow, and **[|runoff]**. <span style="font-size: 10pt; color: black; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"> ·  <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Sewage waste and septic tank **[|leaching]**. <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">

Source: []


 * CARBON CYCLE**

All life is based on the element **//carbon//**. Carbon is the major chemical constituent of most organic matter, from **[|fossil fuels]** to the complex molecules (**[|DNA]** and **[|RNA]**) that control genetic reproduction in organisms. Yet by weight, carbon is not one of the most abundant elements within the Earth's crust. In fact, the lithosphere is only 0.032% carbon by weight. In comparison, oxygen and silicon respectively make up 45.2% and 29.4% of the Earth's surface rocks. Carbon is stored on our planet in the following major **[|sinks]** (**Figure 9r-1** and **Table 9r-1**): (1) as **[|organic] [|molecules]** in living and dead organisms found in the **[|biosphere]**; (2) as the gas **[|carbon dioxide]** in the **[|atmosphere]**; (3) as **[|organic matter]** in **[|soils]**; (4) in the **[|lithosphere]** as **[|fossil fuels]** and **[|sedimentary rock]** deposits such as **[|limestone]**, **[|dolomite]** and **[|chalk]**; and (5) in the oceans as dissolved atmospheric **[|carbon dioxide]** and as **[|calcium carbonate]** shells in marine organisms.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Figure 9r-1 ****<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> [|Carbon cycle].
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Table 9r-1 ****<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Estimated major stores of carbon on the Earth.

<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Atmosphere ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">578 (as of 1700) - 766 (as of 1999) || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Soil Organic Matter ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">1500 to 1600 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Ocean ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">38,000 to 40,000 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Marine Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">66,000,000 to 100,000,000 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Terrestrial Plants ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">540 to 610 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Fossil Fuel Deposits ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">4000 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Sink **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> ||  ||
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Amount in Billions of Metric Tons **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> ||
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Amount in Billions of Metric Tons **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> ||

Carbon dioxide enters the waters of the ocean by simple **[|diffusion]**. Once dissolved in seawater, the carbon dioxide can remain as is or can be converted into carbonate (CO3-2) or bicarbonate (HCO3-). Certain forms of sea life biologically fix bicarbonate with calcium (Ca+2) to produce **[|calcium carbonate]** (CaCO3). This substance is used to produce shells and other body parts by organisms such as coral, clams, oysters, some protozoa, and some algae. When these organisms die, their shells and body parts sink to the ocean floor where they accumulate as carbonate-rich deposits. After long periods of time, these deposits are physically and chemically altered into **[|sedimentary rocks]**. Ocean deposits are by far the biggest sink of carbon on the planet (**Table 9r-1**). Carbon is released from ecosystems as **[|carbon dioxide]** gas by the process of **[|respiration]**. Respiration takes place in both plants and animals and involves the breakdown of carbon-based organic molecules into carbon dioxide gas and some other compound by products. The **[|detritus food chain]** contains a number of organisms whose primary ecological role is the **[|decomposition]** of organic matter into its abiotic components. Over the several billion years of geologic history, the quantity of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere has been steadily decreasing. Researchers theorized that this change is in response to an increase in the Sun's output over the same time period. Higher levels of carbon dioxide helped regulate the Earth's temperature to levels slightly higher than what is perceived today. These moderate temperatures allowed for the flourishing of plant life despite the lower output of [|**solar radiation**]. An enhanced [|**greenhouse effect**], due to the greater concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere, supplemented the production of **[|heat energy]** through higher levels of longwave counter-radiation. As the Sun grew more intense, several biological mechanisms gradually locked some of the atmospheric carbon dioxide into **[|fossil fuels]** and **[|sedimentary rock]**. In summary, this regulating process has kept the Earth's global average temperature essentially constant over time. Some scientists suggest that this phenomena is proof for the **[|Gaia hypothesis]**. Carbon is stored in the lithosphere in both **[|inorganic]** and **[|organic]** forms. Inorganic deposits of carbon in the **[|lithosphere]** include **[|fossil fuels]** like **[|coal]**, **[|oil]**, and [|**natural** **gas**], oil **[|shale]**, and **[|carbonate]** based sedimentary deposits like **[|limestone]**. Organic forms of carbon in the lithosphere include **[|litter]**, [|**organic matter**], and **[|humic]** substances found in soils. Some carbon dioxide is released from the interior of the lithosphere by **[|volcanoes]**. Carbon dioxide released by volcanoes enters the lower lithosphere when carbon-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks are **[|subducted]** and partially melted beneath **[|tectonic]** boundary zones. Since the [|**Industrial Revolution**], humans have greatly increased the quantity of carbon dioxide found in the Earth's atmosphere and oceans. Atmospheric levels have increased by over 30%, from about 275 parts per million (ppm) in the early 1700s to just over 365 PPM today. Scientists estimate that future atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide could reach an amount between 450 to 600 PPM by the year 2100. The major sources of this gas due to human activities include fossil fuel combustion and the modification of natural plant cover found in grassland, woodland, and forested ecosystems. Emissions from fossil fuel combustion account for about 65% of the additional carbon dioxide currently found in the Earth's atmosphere. The other 35% is derived from deforestation and the conversion of natural ecosystems into agricultural systems. Researchers have shown that natural ecosystems can store between 20 to 100 times more carbon dioxide than agricultural land-use types.
 * [|Ecosystems]** gain most of their **[|carbon dioxide]** from the **[|atmosphere]**. A number of **[|autotrophic]** organisms have specialized mechanisms that allow for absorption of this gas into their cells. With the addition of water and energy from **[|solar radiation]**, these organisms use **[|photosynthesis]** to chemically convert the carbon dioxide to carbon-based sugar molecules. These molecules can then be chemically modified by these organisms through the metabolic addition of other elements to produce more complex compounds like **[|proteins]**, **[|cellulose]**, and **[|amino acids]**. Some of the **[|organic matter]** produced in plants is passed down to **[|heterotrophic]** animals through consumption.

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 * WATER/HYDROLOGIC CYCLE**

The **hydrologic cycle** is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of water between the **[|biosphere]**, **[|atmosphere]**, **[|lithosphere]**, and the **[|hydrosphere]** (see **Figure 8b-1**). Water on this planet can be stored in any one of the following reservoirs: **[|atmosphere]**, **[|oceans]**, **[|lakes]**, **[|rivers]**, **[|soils]**, **[|glaciers]**, **[|snowfields]**, and **[|groundwater]**.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Figure 8b-1 ****<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Hydrologic Cycle.

Water moves from one reservoir to another by way of processes like **[|evaporation]**, **[|condensation]**, **[|precipitation]**, **[|deposition]**, **[|runoff]**, **[|infiltration]**, **[|sublimation]**, **[|transpiration]**, **[|melting]**, and **[|groundwater flow]**. The oceans supply most of the evaporated water found in the atmosphere. Of this evaporated water, only 91% of it is returned to the ocean basins by way of precipitation. The remaining 9% is transported to areas over landmasses where climatological factors induce the formation of precipitation. The resulting imbalance between rates of evaporation and precipitation over land and ocean is corrected by runoff and groundwater flow to the oceans. The planetary water supply is dominated by the oceans (see **Table 8b-1**). Approximately 97% of all the water on the Earth is in the oceans. The other 3% is held as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, lakes, soil, the atmosphere, and within life.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Table 8b-1 ****<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">: **<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Inventory of water at the Earth's surface.

<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Reservoir ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Volume (cubic km x 1,000,000) || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Percent of Total || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Oceans ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">1370 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">97.25 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Ice Caps and Glaciers ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">29 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">2.05 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Groundwater ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">9.5 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.68 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Lakes ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.125 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.01 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Soil Moisture ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.065 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.005 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Atmosphere ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.013 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.001 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Streams and Rivers ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.0017 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.0001 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Biosphere || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.0006 || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">0.00004 ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';"> Water is continually cycled between its various reservoirs. This cycling occurs through the processes of [|evaporation], [|condensation], [|precipitation], [|deposition], [|runoff], [|infiltration], [|sublimation], [|transpiration], [|melting], and [|groundwater flow]. Table 8b-2 describes the ty[ical residence times of water in the major reservoirs. On average water is renewed in rivers once every 16 days. Water in the atmosphere is completely replaced once every 8 days. Slower rates of replacement occur in large lakes, glaciers, ocean bodies and groundwater. Replacement in these reservoirs can take from hundreds to thousands of years. Some of these resources (especially groundwater) are being used by humans at rates that far exceed their renewal times. This type of resource use is making this type of water effectively [|nonrenewable.]


 * Table 8b-2**: Typical residence times of water found in various reserviors.

<span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Reservoir ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Average Residence Time || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Glaciers ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">20 to 100 years || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Seasonal Snow Cover ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">2 to 6 months || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Soil Moisture ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">1 to 2 months || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Groundwater: Shallow ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">100 to 200 years || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Groundwater: Deep ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">10,000 years || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Lakes ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">50 to 100 years || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Rivers ||  || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">2 to 6 months || <span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">

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 * Handouts**
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Reflection: **